By Joe MACALHANY

((an article from Old World Auctions detailing Sixteenth century map map makers.Thank you))

Sebastian Münster, “Seb. Munst. Ayant 60. Ans.,” 1552

Novae Insulae, XVII Nova Tabula (1540)

Africa XVIII Nova Tabula (1540)

Coletta Hondius, “Gerardus Mercator…,” 1638

Septentrionalium Terrarum Descriptio (1595)

Orbis Terrae Compendiosa Descriptio quam ex Magna Universali Gerardi Mercatoris Domino Richardo Gartho… (1587)

Abraham Ortelius, “Spectandum Dedit Ortelius Mortalib. Orbem, Orbi Spectandum Galleus Ortelium,” 1598

Maris Pacifici, (quod Vulgo Mar del Zur)… (1589)

Islandia (1585)

The post THE MAPMAKERS WHO MADE THE 16TH CENTURY appeared first on Emre Gurcay Collection.

by CELAL ŞENGÖR

MASA KİTAP-İSTANBUL-MMXXIV

WHO WAS MEHMED THE CONQUEROR?

Mehmed II, was the son of Murad II and the greatest Ottoman Sultan. His mother Alime
Hüma Hatun arrived to the palace as a slave and became Murad II’s fourth wife. It is said
that she was a Muslim, while also being from Serbia originally. She passed away when
Mehmed was three years old. After her death Murad II places Mehmed with, his little
prince, with one his wives, Mara, the daughter off the Serbian king. Mehmed loved Mara
who never converted to Islam and always made his important decisions after talking with
her. His command of the slavic language came from his mother Alime Hüma having slavic
roots. If true, Mehmed should have spoken Serbian very well. As Mehmed grew up, he
became acquainted with the culture of Europe and learned how to speak Romaic. İlber
Ortaylı said that Mehmed read classic Greek literature like the Iliad and that he made notes
on the edges of the books. In addition to that, the diary he kept as a child contained the
Greek alphabet and many beautiful drawings. He drew portraits of a lot of people. That is
why we can say that he was very talented and cultured. Because he kept this diary when he
was a child we of course cannot find anything relating to matters of state. He also learned
how to speak Persian and Arabic within his classical Islamic education. Deissman (German
Protestant theologist) counts Latin among the languages Mehmed spoke. He also confirms
that Mehmed spoke Greek, Arabbic and Persian. We also know that Marino barleti (one of
Albania’s most important historians during the Renassaince) claimed that Mehmed knew
Hebrew. Of course there are others who do not agree with these claims, that is why the only
languages that we can know for certain that Mehmed spoke were Turkish and Arabic.
Mehmed was an outlier during the history of the Ottoman Empire. If we take the empires
history as a straight line Mehmet would be like Mount Everest on that straight line. No
other genius came to lead to the people until Atatürk after Mehmed. The reason for this is
Fatih Sultan Mehmed’s intelligence and his wide spectrum of interests. He was a good
politician, so much so that he stopped all the alliances that were developing against the
empire, especially in the Balkans and Anatolia. However, Mehmed’s actual strength was
realizing that Europe was outgrowing the empire in certain areas. For example, Mehmed
invited painters and sculptors thinking that the Ottomans were falling behind in art. He had
every single book that he could find about geography and law after conquering the
Byzantines in addition to books he found from Europe. Mehmed had two code of laws. One
was the minor law, the other the major law.
The Minor Code of Law was drafted immediately after the conquest of Istanbul and included
the raia, meaning the tax paying lower classes that consisted nomads, farmers, manual
workers, shopkeepers and merchants. The penal code was the same for all members of the
raia but the tax code was different for Muslims and Christians. This law only consists of
recording existing laws. On the other hand, the Major Code of Law included the laws of
Mehmed’s ancestors, but still bore the mark of Mehmed himself entirely, with important

additions and changes made by him. With this law, the Ottoman Empire became a central
power with a constitution for the first time. The translations that was commissioned by
Mehmed had a great impact on the publication of both. The fact that philosophy and
linguistics books, including dictionaries, were copied just before law books were copied just
goes to show that he intended to bring forth law from the very beginning and was actually
preparing for it. He wanted to learn about what was happening in other places before
preaching his own laws. Mehmed did not claim that these issues were outside of religion,
and unlike Sultans before him, he viewed them in a critical manner. I could never
understand why the title of lawmaker was given to Suleiman the First and not to Mehmed
the Conqueror. Suleiman the First only made some laws into a more Islamic form! In my
opinion, Mehmed deserves the lawmaker title much more than his grandchild.

Fatih Sultan Mehmed was the first to change the structure of the state in the Ottoman Empire.
After him, a serious state system was established and Mehmed II transformed a simple
principality into the Ottoman Empire. His approach to Western education was entirely
different from that of his ancestors. Mehmed II’s greatest reform was gathering Greek and
Italian experts in various fields of science and art around him.
Mehmed II wanted to make many more changes in the Ottoman Empire, but his life was cut
short because he was murdered. Due to his insatiable curiosity, Mehmed II paid a great price
and became a sultan who was not liked by the people because he was not a part of their
culture. Even his heir did not understand his intellectual world. Although it is not known
exactly who killed him, it is certain that Mehmed II was poisoned, and it was done by Jacob
Efendi. Although Jacob Efendi was immediately captured and killed, the question of who
ordered him to carry out this task has never been clarified. There are three candidates
mentioned in this regard: the first is the Pope, the second is the Venetians, and the third is his
son Bayezid. The Pope's motive was his fear of the Ottoman army advancing on Rome after
their conquest of Otranto. The Venetians were motivated by their fear that Mehmed II might
turn against them and naturally by their concern that his actions would disrupt Venetian trade.
Bayezid is the strongest suspect among these, as he had a more serious reason to kill his
father. Bayezid knew that Mehmed II had chosen Cem as his heir.
Cem is younger than Bayezid, but according to the Mehmed II Code, fratricide is mandatory
for the preservation of the state, meaning that if necessary, a brother may be killed for the
survival of the state. Bayezid fears this because Cem could grow up to be like Mehmed II. He
calculates that his brother might kill him when he grows older. There are specific reasons for
this; Cem and Bayezid’s ideas are completely incompatible, and Bayezid is a complete
reactionary. He is extremely religious; he does not resemble Mehmed II at all and even
believes that his father has turned away from religion, meaning in his eyes, his father is an
infidel. To him, his father's upbringing as a Muslim is reason enough to kill him. It is also
said that besides his father, Bayezid later poisoned his brother Cem. Additionally, it is
possible that these three suspects might have colluded because Bayezid was the one most
easily able to intervene from within. These three parties might have combined their powers to
achieve their goals.
Mehmed II is a frightening figure to those around him, but his most important trait is his
intellectuality. He established a magnificent library. Mehmed II Sultan Mehmed did not
manage to change much in the Ottoman Empire because the sultans who came after him were

too mediocre to sustain the innovations he started. For instance, Mehmed II had frescoes
made on the walls of the Topkapı Palace, but his son, Bayezid II, had them painted over and
allowed the library to decay. He even sold the portraits made for his father by the Italian
painter Bellini at the market. Today, that magnificent portrait still remains in London because
Layard (a British explorer and archaeologist) bought it for a very low price from an antique
dealer. However, it is now so valuable that we cannot bring it back to our country.
Moreover, Mehmed II minted medals inscribed with "Osmanoğlu" in Latin letters.
Innovations like these gave the state a certain personality. However, unfortunately Mehmed
II’s reign was too short. It is often said that the Ottoman Empire entered a period of
stagnation and decline after Suleiman the Magnificent. I attribute this to Bayezid II, the
Ottoman Empire entered a period of stagnation and decline after Mehmed II. For example,
Austrian Orientalist Josef Ritter von Karabacek speaks of Bayezid II’s hostility towards art.
In contrast, he refers to Mehmed II’s son, Selim I, as a friend in both Ottoman and European
sources. Karabacek states that Selim I’s untimely death caused a pause in the artistic
movement that Mehmed II had started in the Ottoman Empire.
The conquest of Istanbul marks the transition of the Ottoman state from a principality to an
empire. Although the conquest of Istanbul is not a military success, it is often portrayed as a
major military achievement. The Crusaders had conquered Istanbul in two weeks in 1204.
However, under Mehmed II, the conquest took two months. The reasons for this delay
include Mehmed II’s youth and the inexperience of the army. Nevertheless, the psychological
impact of the conquest of Istanbul on Europe was immense. While until then it was thought
that Istanbul could not be captured by the Turks, Mehmed II’s conquest created great fear
among Europeans. However, the Istanbul that Mehmed II captured was not glorious; its
population had dropped to sixty thousand and was in its weakest period. During the conquest,
he also had to seek help from the Italians. In short, the Istanbul that Mehmed II captured was
a looted, impoverished, and completely weakened city.
For Mehmed II, the conquest of Istanbul was indeed a gain. For Europe, it was a loss, and at
that time Europe was too ignorant to recognize the value of Byzantium. Mehmed II, on the
other hand, was knowledgeable enough to appreciate and recognize Byzantium's worth. If
Europe had understood the value of Istanbul, they might have come to its aid, but they did
not. Mehmed II’s great genius was in anticipating that such aid would not come.
For instance, Mehmed I (Çelebi Mehmed) could not counter the danger posed by the Timurid
Empire in the east. The ruler of the time, Shah Rukh used to say “You are our subjects!”
Until Mehmed II, the Ottoman State was a vassal of the Timurid Empire. It was only after the
Timurid Empire fell into chaos that it was able to regain independence. Can you imagine, all
our sultans whom we consider important, such as Mehmed I and Murad II, were subjects of
Timurid and his descendants. However, Mehmed II disrupted this. Mehmed II defeated the
Balkan and Anatolian principalities, uniting them and turning the state into a true empire.
From this, we understand that the conquest of Istanbul not only created an imperial image for
Mehmed II himself but also reflected his intention to become the Roman Emperor, which he
indeed achieved. After the conquest of Istanbul, he gave himself the title "Kayser-i iklim-i
Rûm," meaning "Emperor of the Roman Lands." Mehmed II admired Alexander the Great
because Alexander brought Greek culture to the East and sought to merge Greek and Eastern
cultures. Ekrem Akurgal expressed how mistaken this was by stating, “For the first time,
Atatürk saw that the East and West could not come together.” This is because you cannot
synthesize slavery and freedom; it is not possible. Evil certainly corrupts good and pulls it

down. For this reason, it is certain that Mehmed II turned his face towards the West. He read
their books. His secretary for many years was Angiolello, an Italian traveller and writer. With
examples like these, we can say that Mehmed II was inclined towards Western culture.
Therefore, Mehmed II was not merely a “conqueror.” He had other qualities as well. The
fundamental reason for his conquest of Istanbul was the prestige of the Ottomans. If he had
not conquered it, the Ottomans would have lost prestige. Europe would have become
relatively wealthier. When Istanbul was captured, that wealth did not pass to Europe. But
unfortunately, despite Mehmed II’s efforts, much of this cultural wealth was lost afterward.
Much like Atatürk, his early death led our country to disaster. If only he could have lived to
make Cem a sultan, we might have ended up in a very different place. If Mehmed II had not
captured Istanbul, our current culture could have been worse. Because when Mehmed II
captured Istanbul, the educated population stayed in the city and he worked with them. Later
on, they diminished, but at least a form Istanbul’s Turkish language remained.
During Mehmed II’s time, an elite team was formed in Istanbul, but unfortunately, there was
no science within this formation. Mehmed II established many libraries in Istanbul and
collected Islamic literature to an impossible extent. Numerous books have been written about
his library. Interestingly, among the collections he gathered were religious books related to
Christianity and Judaism. I see an intellectual’s interest in religion here. If Mehmed II was
indeed an unbeliever, this makes more sense. He likely studied all the religions he could find
and, in my opinion, came to a judgment unfavourable to religion. In contrast, his dominance
over books on natural sciences, mathematics and geography shows his interest in this world.
This is a rare situation for the cultural world he belonged to. Mehmed II’s attitude towards
these subjects is typical of a person living during the Renaissance. Mehmed II’s importance
lies in his great genius and the breadth of his interests.
He appointed Lütfi, a mathematician and astronomer famous for his unorthodox views on
religion and who was later executed, as his librarian. Molla Lütfi(Sarı Lütfi), from Tokat, was
a serious mathematician. His mathematical book was translated into French by Adnan Adıvar
and Şerefettin Yaltkaya and later published in Paris. Lütfi and Mehmed II were so close
friends that they joked and played pranks. Once, Molla Lütfi stood on a marble slab to fetch a
book from above. Mehmed II, who was reading a book in the library at that time, looked at
Lütfi and asked, “Lütfi, what are you doing?” Lütfi replied, “Sultan, I am taking a book.”
Mehmed II said, “The marble you are standing on is a piece from the tomb of our Lord
Jesus.” Lütfi then realized that the sultan was teasing him. On another day, while Lütfi was
dusting the library, Mehmed II was reading a book. Lütfi took a dust cloth from the side and
placed it on Mehmed II’s lap. Mehmed II said, “What are you doing, Lütfi!” Lütfi replied,
“Sultan, this was the swaddling of our Lord Jesus.” Here, we see two things: first, they joke
with each other, and second, they do not take Christianity seriously. At least, that is what we
know. However, it is tragic that as soon as Bayezid became sultan, he accused Mehmed II’s
librarian, Molla Lütfi, of impiety and had him hanged in Sultanahmet Square. Adnan Adıvar
wrote that Sarı Lütfi was “the first science martyr of the Ottomans” in his book “Science in
Ottoman Turks”. His execution was also one of the first signs of the intellectual decline that
began after Mehmed II.
Bayezid II told Angiolello, “My father did not believe in Muhammad,” which is recorded.
Mehmed II was a true free thinker. He did not allow anything to limit him. He had a
tremendous curiosity. For instance, immediately after the conquest of Istanbul, the
"Ptolemaic Atlases" (the world's first large atlas, prepared by Claudius Ptolemy in Alexandria

in the 2nd century AD) were discovered. Mehmed II had them immediately translated into
Arabic. He also had a large world map made on the palace wall, but his son later had it
destroyed. We know that in Mehmed II’s palace, not only copying was conducted, but also
scientific geographical activities were conducted as well. He did not only establish an
academy to educate himself but also created a research institution to increase knowledge. The
common language used by this scientific group is believed to have been Arabic until the
madrasas were abolished in the Ottoman State. However, the classical Greek works and
scientific books such as those on geometry in Mehmed II’s library show that Arabic was not
the only language. Speaking of the Ptolemaic Atlases, these were acquired and translated
during Mehmed II’s time, but we never see them again. Worse still, the reason we cannot see
the atlas is that it fell in water due to negligence in the Topkapi Palace.
In 1926, upon Atatürk's order, the palace was nationalized and an inventory was taken.
During the inventory, classical Greek books were found. At that time, Halil Edhem was the
Director of the Asâr-ı Atika (the first museum establishment in Turkey, which forms the basis
of today’s Istanbul Archaeology Museums). Adolf Deissmann, one of the foremost experts
on Greek and classical Greek of the time and who is also the rector of Berlin University,
participated in the excavations in Ephesus, for which he had to frequently obtain permission
from the authorities. Deissmann came to Istanbul twice to meet with Halil Edhem. At that
time, there were no airplanes, so they travelled by train. Each time, they would set off from
Sirkeci Station, and this led to their friendship. Halil Edhem spoke to Deissmann about the
books found and suggested he take a look. Deissmann gladly accepted the invitation.
When Deissmann arrived, the first book placed before him was a 13th-century edition of
Homer’s "Iliad." He asked, “Where did you find this?” Halil Edhem replied, “There are more
like these.” When the Ptolemaic Atlas was presented, Deissmann realized the seriousness of
the situation. Upon asking about the source, Halil Edhem explained that these were remnants
of Mehmed II’s library. Deissmann concluded that Mehmed II must have been a man
interested in geography based on the atlas found in the Topkapi Palace collection. He
suggested that there might be more maps in the palace and had Halil Edhem look into it. A
roll of maps were brought and spread out on the table. They saw that an Ottoman map was
hanging from the edge. Halil Edhem examined it and discovered that it depicted the
American continent. It was noted that the map had the inscription: "We captured it from
Kemal Reis, who was with the infidel Columbus." This was a fragment of Piri Reis’s famous
1513 map. Interestingly, Columbus, distrusting the Spanish king and queen, copied the
Caribbean region from Toscanelli’s map. Piri Reis, unaware of this, included the same map in
his own. Therefore, the Caribbean region depicted by Piri Reis in 1513 is entirely different
from that in the 1528 map, which resembles today's geography. The one who misled him
was, of course, Christopher Columbus. Columbus intended to provide the king and queen
with a faulty map, and our people ended up acquiring the erroneous map.
There are also claims that a library from the Byzantine period was transferred to the
Ottomans after the conquest, but this is not true. All the books in the library belonging to
Mehmed II in Topkapi Palace were collected by him personally. Mehmed II not only
collected books but also had many that he could not obtain copied in his own Greek
scriptorium, and many Arabic books copied in the Islamic scriptorium. This indicates that he
was actively engaged in book collection and that Mehmed II did not inherit an imperial
library. The exact number of books in Mehmed II’s library is unknown. Among the books in
his library were Euclid’s Geometry, Heron of Alexandria, Homer, the Biblical Lexicon,
Aesop’s Fables, and the Book of Magic of Solomon. It is said that there were seven thousand

books listed during Bayezid’s time, but since the later sultans showed no interest in these
books, only a few remain today. Palace staff had no opportunity to read them. There was a
habit of gifting valuable books from the palace library. Ottoman sultans frequently used this
method as a diplomatic tool. Additionally, books from the palace library were sometimes
stolen and sold by palace employees to foreign missionaries and embassies in Istanbul, and
since the buyers left the country, this splendid collection was dispersed. Probably, no one
took the Ptolemaic Atlases because they did not understand what they were. They were left in
the water and were ruined. The edges of the pages rotted, and more than half of them were
lost. This is a terrible thing to have happened. Deissmann told Halil Edhem that the atlas
needed urgent restoration. Halil Edhem said, “We need to consult with the Pasha,” and called
Atatürk in Ankara. He said, “Pasha, there is something in a very dilapidated condition that
needs repair. We want to bring it to show you.” However, Atatürk replied, “Don’t bring it,
don’t move it, I’m coming myself!” and came to see it. Deissmann explained the importance
of the atlas to Atatürk. Atatürk asked, “Professor, what needs to be done?” Deissmann
replied, “It needs to be restored, and only one person in the world can do it: Hugo Ibscher. He
happens to be at our university in Berlin.” At that time, Ibscher was working on another atlas
that was a sibling of the Ptolemaic Atlas in the Vatican. However, the Vatican atlas was not
as valuable as the one in Topkapi Palace because it was drawn according to conic projection.
Atatürk asked, “Professor, can Ibscher come?” Deissmann responded, “If you invite him, he
will come.” By Atatürk's order, Ibscher came and examined the atlas. He said that due to
inadequate technology, he would not be able to restore the text pages but could restore the
maps. He restored as much as he could and emphasized that the atlas needed to be well-
preserved because future technology might allow the pages to be read. Atatürk ordered that
the atlas be kept in a secure manner. Ibscher even wrote letters to his close friend, an Italian
cardinal scholar in the Vatican, complaining about the conditions in Istanbul. He wrote about
the lack of materials, skilled people, and tradition, etc. He also added that he did his best at
the request of Mustafa Kemal Pasha.
Years later, a research centre was established in Switzerland. The last general edition of
Ptolemy's work was completed in 1855. The Swiss research centre required a new edition.
Since no one had previously known about it, the manuscript in Topkapi Palace had not been
used. The then-director of Topkapi Palace, the late Filiz Cağman, granted permission to use
our manuscript. Restorers were brought in, along with special equipment and ultraviolet
lights that made the carbonized, pitch-black pages readable.
Filiz called me and said, "Celâl, you’re curious, come and see." Of course, when Ptolemy's
work was restored, I couldn't resist. I immediately went to Topkapi Palace. We talked to the
team, got acquainted, and chatted. Robert Fuchs, one of the world's most renowned restorers
from the vocational school in Cologne, had come. He had discussed with Filiz, and Fuchs had
said that the book could be restored. Filiz put me in a corner and said, "Celâl, this needs to be
restored." I said, "Go ahead." She then asked, "The state won't provide the money; will you
cover it?" I inquired how much it would cost Robert Fuchs. He said, "At most 30,000 euros."
I immediately agreed. My wife Oya was also happy to provide the money.
The restorer for the job was found, the experts were chosen, but permission was needed from
the Ministry of Culture. Filiz requested the permission, but it took seven years for it to come
through. Later, when Filiz retired and İlber Ortaylı became the president, I explained the
situation to İlber and said that the process needed to be expedited. İlber couldn't believe it. He
immediately called the then-Minister of Culture, Atilla Koç, who was also İlber's schoolmate.
The very next day, the permission was granted. After that, Fuchs was able to start working,

and the book was restored beautifully. Fuchs's team did an excellent job. I was very pleased.
They gave me a complete set of photographs and films. I used these in many of my
publications. This way, my path intersected with that of Mehmed the Conqueror.
The high-quality facsimile (or exact reproduction) of the restored atlas, along with research
reports, was published by Boyut Publications. Both national and international intellectuals
owe a debt of gratitude to Bülent Ozükan, the owner of Boyut Publications, for undertaking
this laborious and risky endeavour.

KİM KİMDİR?  / CEHALETTEN KURTULMA SANATI

CELAL ŞENGÖR

MASA KİTAP-İSTANBUL-MMXXIV

FATİH SULTAN MEHMED KİMDİR?

Fatih Sultan Mehmed, Sultan İkinci Murad’ın oğludur ve en büyük Osmanlı padişahidir. Annesi Alime Hüma Hatun, saraya köle olarak gelip İkinci Murad ın dördüncü eşi olmuştur. Sonradan Müslüman olduğu söylenir, aslen Sırp olduğu düşünülür. Fatih’in öz annesi Hüma Hatun, Fatih üç yaşındayken vefat eder. Sultan Murad, küçük şehzadesini eşi, Sırp kralının kızı Mara Hatun’un yanına verir. Fatih, hiçbir zaman Müslüman olmamış olan Mara Hatun’u çok sevmiş, hayatı boyunca önemli kararlarını onunla tartıştıktan sonra almıştır. Slav diline hâkimiyeti de annesi Alime Hüma Hatun’un Slav kökenli olmasından kaynaklıdır. Eğer doğruysa Fatih’in de Sırpçayı çok iyi konuşmuş olması gerekir. İlerleyen yaşlarında da Avrupa kültürüyle yakından tanışır ve Rumca ögrenir. İlber Ortaylı, Fatih’ in İlyada gibi klasik Yunan eserlerini okuduğunu ve sayfa kenarlarına notlar yazdığını söylemişti. Ayrıca çocukken tuttuğu defterde de Yunanca alfabe olduğu gibi bir de şahane resimler vardır, birçok kişinin portresini çizmiştir. Dolayısıyla çok yetenekli ve kültürlü bir adam olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. Bu defteri çocukken tuttuğu için elbette devlet meselelerine dair bir şeyler göremiyoruz. Ayrıca çocukken klasik İslam eği- timi içerisinde Arapça ve Farsça ögrenir. Deissmann (Alman Protestan ilahiyatçı) ayrıca Latinceyi de Fatih’in konuştuğu diller arasında sayar ve Yunanca, Arapça, Farsça dillerini konuştuğunu teyit eder. Ayrıca Marino Barletinin (Arnavutluk’un Rönesans Dönemi’ndeki en önemli tarihçisidir) Fatih’in İbranice bildiğini iddia ettiği bilgisine de sahibiz. Tabii bunları yanlışlayanlar da var, o yüzden kesin olarak bildiği diller için Türkçe ve Arapça diyebiliriz.

Fatih, Osmanlı tarihinde bir çıkıntıdır.  Osmanlı tarihinde düz bir çizgi çizersek Fatih, Everest Daği gibi bir çıkıntı yapar. Fatih’ten sonra Atatürk’e kadar bu milleti yöneten başka bir dâhi gelmemiştir. Bunun sebebi Fatih Sultan Mehmed’in üstün zekâsı ve ilgi tayfının çok geniş olmasıdır. Bir taraftan iyi bir politikacıdır, özellikle Balkanlarda ve Anadolu’da aleyhimize gelişmekte olan bütün birleşmeleri ve ittifakları başarısızlığa uğratmıştır. Fakat Fatih’in esas büyük tarafı Avrupa’nın bazı konularda bizi geçmekte olduğunu erken fark etmesidir. Örneğin ta o zamanlarda, Fatih sanatta geri kaldığımızı düşünüp ülkemize ressamlar ve heykeltıraşlar davet eder. Özellikle Bizans fethedildikten sonra coğrafya ve hukuk gibi konularda Bizans’tan ele geçirdiği neredeyse bütün hukuk kitaplarını ve Avrupa’dan bulabildiklerini tercüme ettirir. Fatih’in iki tane kanunnamesi vardır. Biri küçük kanunname, diğeri de büyük kanunnamedir.

Küçük Kanunname, İstanbul’un fethinden hemen sonra hazırlanan ve reayaya yani vergi ödeyen alt sınıflar; göçebeler,  çiftçiler, el isçileri, dükkân sahipleri ve tüccarlarla ilgili olandır. Ceza kanunu reayanın tüm üyeleri için aynıdır ama vergi kanunu Müslümanlar ve Hristiyanlar için farklıdır. Bu ka- nunnâme, mevcut kanunların kayda geçirilmesinden ibarettir. Büyük Kanunname ise Fatih’in atalarının kanunlarını da içermekle beraber onun yaptığı önemli eklemeler ve değişikliklerle tamamen onun damgasını taşıyan bir yasadır. Bu yasayla birlikte ilk defa Osmanlı İmparatorluğu anayasaya sahip merkezi bir güç haline gelmiştir. Her ikisinin yayımlanmasında da Fatih’ in yaptırdığı tercüme faaliyetlerinin büyük etkisi vardır. Sözlükler dâhil dilbilimi ve felsefe kitaplarının kanun kitaplarının kopyalanmasından hemen önce kopyalanmış olması, en başından beri devlete bir yasa getirme niyetinde olup buna hazırlık yaptığını gösterir. Kendi kanunlarını vazetmeden önce etrafta ne var ne yok ögrenmek istemiştir. Fatih, bu konulara dinin dışında kalıyor dememiş, kendinden önceki Sultanların aksine eleştirel bakmıştır. Ben hiçbir zaman anlayama misimdir, kanuni sıfatı niçin Fatih’e değil de Birinci Süleyman’a verilmiştir? Birinci Süleyman sadece bazı kanunları daha İslami bir şekle sokmuştur o kadar! Bana göre Fatih, kanuni sıfatını torun çocuğundan çok daha fazla hak etmiştir.

Fatih Sultan Mehmed, Osmanlıda evvela devletin yapısını değiştirmiş tir. Ondan sonra bizim ciddi bir devlet sistemimiz oluşmuş ve Fatih, basit bir beylik olarak süregelen Osmanlıyı bir imparatorluk haline getirmiştir. Onun Bati tahsiline olan bakışı, atalarına tamamen zıttır. Fatih’in en büyük yeniliği; çevresine muhtelif bilim ve sanat dallarında uzman, Yunan ve İtalyanları toplamasıdır.

Fatih Osmanlıda birçok şeyi daha değiştirmek ister fakat ömrü vefa etmez çünkü öldürülür. Doymak bilmeyen merakı  yüzünden Fatih büyük bir bedel öder. Halk tarafından da sevilmeyen bir sultan haline gelir çünkü o halkın kültürünün bir parçası değildir. Veliahttı bile onun entelektüel dünyasını hiç anlayamamıştır. Onu kimin öldürdüğü tam olarak bilinemese de Fatih’in zehirlendiği için öldüğü kesindir, bunu yapan Jacob Efendidir. Jacob Efendi anında yakalanıp öldürülse de ona bu görevi kimin verdiği sorusu hiçbir zaman aydınlatılamamıştır. Bu konuda ismi geçen üç aday vardır: Birincisi papa, ikincisi Venedikliler, üçüncüsü de oğlu Bayezid. Papanın gerekçesi, Otranto ya çıkmış Osmanlı ordusunun Roma üzerine yürümesinden korkmasıdır. Venediklilerin gerekçesi, Fatih’in kendi üzerlerine gelebileceği korkusu ve tabiî Venedik’ in ticaretine sekte vuracağı endişesidir. Bayezid şüpheliler arasındaki en güçlü ihtimaldir çünkü babasını öldürmek için daha ciddi bir sebebi vardır. Bayezid, Fatih’in veliaht olarak Cem’i seçtiğini biliyordur.

Cem, Bayezid’den daha küçüktür fakat Fatih Kanunnamesi ‘ne göre devletin bekası için kardeş katli vaciptir yani devletin yasayabilmesi için gerekirse kardeş öldürülebilir. Bayezid korkar çünkü Cem de Fatihe benzeyen bir adamdır. Kardeşinin büyüdüğünde onu öldürebileceğini hesaplar. Bunun da belli sebepleri mevcuttur; Cem ve Bayezid’ in fikirleri hiç uyuşmaz, Bayezid tam bir yobazdır. Aşırı dindardır; Fatihe de hiç benzemez ve hatta babasının dinden çıktığını düşünür, yani babası onun gözünde kâfirdir. Ona göre babası Müslüman olarak büyütülmüş olduğuna göre bu, onu öldürmesi için yeterli bir sebeptir. Babası dışında daha sonra kardeşi Cem’i de zehirlettiği söylenir. Ayrıca varsayılan bu üç adayın bir araya gelmiş olması da mümkündür çünkü içeriden en kolay müdahale edebilecek olan Bayezid’dir. Bu üç taraf güçlerini emelleri uğrunda birleştirmiş olabilir.

Fatih çevresini korkutan bir adamdır ancak onun en önemli vasfı entelektüel olmasıdır. Şahane bir kütüphane kurmuştur. Fatih Sultan Mehmed, Osmanlıda pek bir şey değiştirememiş tir çünkü kendisinden sonra gelen padişahlar, onun başlattığı yenilikleri sürdüremeyecek kadar kalitesiz adamlardır. Mesela Fatih, Topkapı Sarayının duvarına freskler yaptırır ama İkinci Bayezid bunların üstünü boyatır, kütüphanesini kaldırıp çürümeye bırakır. Babasının İtalyan ressam Bellini’yi İstanbul’a getirtip özel olarak yaptırdığı portresini ve diğer resimleri pazarda sattırır. Bugün o muhteşem portre hâlâ Londra’da durur çünkü Layard (Britanyalı gezgin, arkeolog) çok ucuz bir paraya bir eskiciden satın almıştır. Ama şimdi o kadar değerli bir tablo ki ülkemize getiremiyoruz.

Ayrıca Fatih, madalyon bastırır. Madalyonun üzerinde Lâtin harfleriyle “Osmanoğlu” yazar. Bunun gibi yenilikler devlete bir şahsiyet verir. Ama ne yazık ki Fatih’ in tahtta kaldığı de çok kısadır. Hep Osmanlı Devleti’nin Kanuniden sonra duraklama ve gerileme dönemine girdiği söylenir. Ben bunu İkinci Bayezid’e alıyorum, Osman Devleti duraklama ve gerileme dönemine Fatih’ten sonra girmiştir. Örneğin Avusturyalı Şarkiyatçı Josef Ritter von Karabacek, ikinci Bayezid’ in sanat düşmanlığından bahseder. Buna karşılık da oğlu Birinci Selim’i hem Osmanlı hem de Avrupalı kaynaklarında dostu olarak anar. Karabacek, Birinci Selim’in zamansız ölümünün Fatih’ in Türk imparatorluğunda başlattığı sanat hareketinde bir duraklamaya sebep olduğunu söyler.

Fatih’in İstanbul’u almasıyla birlikte Osmanlı nın beylikten imparatorluğa geçtiği yazılır. İstanbul’un fethi askeri bir başarı değildir ama herkes bunu büyük bir askeri basari olarak anlatır. 1204’te Haçlılar, İstanbul’u iki haftada fethedebilmiştir. Halbuki Fatih’in zamanında fetih iki ay sürer. Bu sürenin uzama sebepleri arasında Fatih’in çok genç olması ve ordunun tecrübesizliği gibi durumlar sayılabilir. Fakat buna rağmen İstanbul’un fethinin Avrupa üzerinde yarattığı psikolojik etki muazzamdır. O zamana kadar İstanbul Türkler tarafından alınamaz diye düşünülürken Fatih’in fethi onlarda büyük bir korku yarat mistir. Ancak Fatih’in aldığı İstanbul şaşaalı değildir; nüfus altmış bine düşmüştür ve en zayıf dönemindedir. Fetih sırasında da İtalyanlardan yârdim istemek zorunda kalmıştır. Kısacası, Fatih’in aldığı İstanbul yağmalanmış, fakirleşmiş, tamamen zayıflamış bir İstanbul’dur.

Fatih açısından İstanbul’un fethi elbette bir kazançtır. Avrupa için de kayıptır ve o yıllarda Avrupa Bizans’ın değerini bilemeyecek kadar cahildir. Fatih tam tersine Bizans’ın kıymetini bilecek ve takdir edecek kadar bilgin bir adamdır. Avrupa eğer İstanbul’un kıymetini anlayabilmiş olsaydı, fetihte yardıma ge- • lirdi fakat gelmemiştir. Fatih’in büyük dehası, bu yardımın gelmeyeceğini öngörmüş olmasıdır.

Mesela, Çelebi Mehmed doğuda Timur İmparatorluğu gibi bir tehlikeye karsı koyamaz. Dönemin hükümdarı Şahruh, “Siz bizim tâbimizsiniz!” der. Fatih doğana kadar, Osmanlı Devleti Timur İmparatorluğu’na tâbidir. Kısa bir süre sonra Timur İmparatorluğu’nda kargaşa çıkınca tekrar bağımsız olabilmiştir. Düşünebiliyor musunuz, Celebi Mehmed ve İkinci Murad gibi önemli gördüğümüz tüm sultanlarımız Timur’a ve Timur un çocuklarına tâbi kalmıştır. Fakat Fatih bunu kırmıştır. Fatih, Balkanları ve Anadolu Beyliklerini yenip bir araya toplamış ve devleti gerçek bir imparatorluk haline getirmiştir. Buradan anlıyoruz ki İstanbul’un alınması sadece Fatih’in sahsı için bir imparatorluk imajı yaratır çünkü Fatih’in niyeti de Roma İmparatoru olmaktır ve bunu da başarır. Kendisine İstanbul’ un fethinden sonra “Kayser-i iklim-i Rûm” yani “Roma Ülkelerinin İmparatoru” unvanını vermiştir. Fatih, Büyük İskender’e hayranlık duyar çünkü İskender, Doğu’ya Yunan kültürünü götürmüştür ve Yunan kültürüyle Doğu kültürlerini birleştirme gayreti içine girmiştir. Bunun ne kadar yanlış bir iş olduğunu Ekrem Akurgal, “ilk defa Atatürk, Doğu ile Batı’nın bir araya gelemeyeceğini gördü,” diyerek ifade etmiştir. Çünkü kölelikle özgürlüğün bir sentezini yapamazsın, bu mümkün değildir. Kötü kesinlikle iyiyi bozar, iyiyi aşağı çeker. Bu sebeple Fatih’ in yüzünü Batıya çevirdiği muhakkaktır. Onların kitaplarını okur. Sekreterliğini yıllarca Angiolello (Venedikli bir seyyah ve yazar)  adında bir İtalyan üstlenir. Bu gibi örneklerle Fatih’ in Bati kültürüne yatkın olduğunu söyleyebiliriz.

Dolayısıyla Fatih, sadece “fatih” yani “fetheden kişi” değildir. Onun başka meziyetleri de vardır. İstanbul’u fethetmesinin en temel sebebi Osmanlının prestijidir. Eğer fethetmeseydi Osmanlı prestij kaybederdi. Avrupa nispeten biraz daha zenginleşirdi. İstanbul’u alınca bu zenginlikler Avrupa ya geçemedi. Ama ne yazık ki Fatih bazı şeyler yapsa da sonrasında bu kültürel zenginliklere bakılamadığı için çok şeyi kaybettik. Ayni Atatürk gibi erken ölümü ülkemizi felakete sürüklemiştir. Keşke yasayıp Cem’i sultan yapabilseydi, belki çok başka bir yere giderdik. Fatih İstanbul’u almasaydı içinde bulunduğumuz kültür de daha kötü olabilirdi. Çünkü Fatih İstanbul’u aldığında kültürlü nüfus şehirde kaldı ve o, onlarla çalışti. Sonra onlar da azaldı, en azından ardında bir İstanbul Türkçesi kaldı.

İstanbul’da Fatih zamanında bir elit takımı oluşmuştu fakat maalesef bu oluşumun içinde bilim yoktu. Fatih, İstanbul’da pek çok kütüphane kurmuş ve buralarda İslam edebiyatını ulaşılması imkânsız bir dolgunlukta toplamıştı. Onun kütüphanesi için sayısız kitap yazılmıştır. Çok ilginçtir, topladıkları  arasında bir koleksiyon da din kitaplarıdır. Hristiyanlık ve Musevilikle ilgili bulabildiklerini toplamıştır. Burada ben bir entelektüelin din fikrine duyduğu ilgiyi görüyorum. Eğer Fatih gerçekten inançsıza bunun niçin böyle olduğu az çok anlaşılıyor. Muhtemelen bulabildiği tüm dinleri incelemiş ve bunlar hakkında kanaatimce dinerin lehine olmayan bir yargıya varmıştır. Buna mukabil doğa bilimleri, matematik ve coğrafya hakkındaki kitaplarının egemenliği bu dünyaya olan ilgisini de göstermektedir. Bu, ait olduğu kültür dünyası için ender bir durumdur. Fatih’ in bu konulardaki tutumu tipik bir Rönesans insanının tutumudur. Fatih’in önemi, büyük dehası ve ilgilerinin genişliğidir.

Kütüphanecisi olarak din konusundaki aykırı fikirleriyle meşhur, daha sonra idam edilmiş olan matematikçi ve astronom Lütfi’yi atamıştır. Sari Lütfi, Tokatlıdır ve ciddi bir matematikçidir. Onun yazdığı matematik kitabini Adnan Adıvar ve Şerefettin Yaltkaya Fransızcaya tercüme etmiş, bu eser daha sonra Paris’te yayımlanmıştır. Ayrıca Lütfi ve Fatih o kadar yakın arkadaşlardır ki espri yapıp şakalaşırlar. Bir defasında Sari Lütfi mermerin üzerine çıkmış yukarıdan bir kitap alacaktır. Fatih de o sırada kütüphanede kitap okumaktadır. Lütfi ye bakar ve “Lütfi ne yapıyorsun?” diye sorar. Lütfi, “Hünkârım, kitap alıyorum,” diye cevap verir. Fatih, “Üstüne bastığın mermer İsa Baba’mızın mezarından bir parçadır,” der. Öyle deyince Lütfi anlar ki sultan onunla dalga geçiyor. Bir başka gün Lütfi kütüphanede toz alırken Fatih de o sırada yine kitap okuyordur. Lütfi kenardan toz bezini alır ve Fatih’ in kucağına bırakır. Fatih, “Ne yapıyorsun Lütfi, aman!” der. Lütfi de bunun üzerine “Hünkârım bu İsa Baba’mızın kundağıydı,” diyerek karşılık verir. Burada iki şey görürüz: Birincisi, birbirleriyle şakalaşırlar, ikincisi de Hristiyanlık dinini ciddiye almazlar. En azından bizim bildiğimiz kadarı budur. Fakat ne acıdır ki Bayezid padişah olur olmaz Fatih’in kütüphanecisi Sarı Lütfi yi dinsizlikle suçlayıp Sultanahmet Meydanında astırır. Adnan Adıvar “Osmanlı Türklerinde İlim” isimli kitabında Sarı Lütfi için “Osmanlı’nın ilk bilim şehididir” diye yazmıştır. Onun idamı, ayni zamanda Fatih’ten sonra başlayan entelektüel çöküşün de ilk işaretlerinden biridir.

İkinci Bayezid, Angiolello ya “Babam Muhammed’e inanmazdı, demiştir, bu kayıtlarda mevcuttur. Fatih tam bir serbest düşünürdür. Hiçbir şeyin kendisini sınırlamasına izin vermez. Müthiş bir merakı vardır. Örneğin is- Fatih tam bir serbest düşünürdür. Hiçbir şeyin kendisini sınırlamasına izin vermez. İstanbul’un fethinden hemen sonra “Ptolemaios Atlasları” (dünyanın bilinen ilk büyük atlası MS. 2. yüzyılda İskenderiye’de yaşayan Klaudios Ptolenaios tarafından hazırlanmıştır.) bulunur. Fatih derhâl Arapçaya tercüme ettirir. Ayrıca saray duvarına koca bir dünya haritası yaptırır fakat oğlu onu kırdırıp attırmıştır. Fatih’ in sarayında sadece kopyalamanın değil, bilimsel bir coğrafya faaliyetinin de sürdüğünü biliyoruz. Etrafında kendisini eğitmek için bir akademi kurmakla kalmamış, bilgiyi arttırmak için bir araştırma kurumu oluşturmuştur. Bu bilimsel grubun kullandığı ortak dilin, medreseler kaldırılana kadar Osmanlı Devletinde olduğu gibi Arapça olduğu sanılmaktadır. Oysa Fatih’in kitaplığındaki klasik Yunan eserleri ve geometri kitabi gibi bilimsel kitaplar Arapça nın tek dil olmadığını gösteriyor. Ptolemaios Atlaslar demişken, bunlar Fatih zamanında ele geçiriliyor, tercüme ettiriliyor fakat sonrasında bu atlası bir daha göremiyoruz. Daha da beteri var… O atlası göremememizin nedeni Topkapı Saray’ında ihmal sizlikten suyun içine düşmesidir.

1926 yılında Atatürk’ün emri üzerine saray millîleştirilir ve envanteri çıkarılır. Envanter esnasında klasik Yunanca kitaplar bulunur. Halil Ethem o zaman Asâr-ı Atika Umum Müdürüdür (Türkiye’deki ilk müze oluşumudur; günümüzdeki İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri’nin temelini oluşturur.)  Zamanın en büyük Yunanca ve klasik Yunanca uzmanlarından Adolf Deissmann, -kendisi ayni zamanda Berlin Üniversitesi rektörüdür- Efes’te yapılan kazılara iştirak eder, tabii bunun için sık sık yetkililerden izin almak zorundadır. Deissmann, Halil Ethem’le görüşmek için iki defa İstanbul’a gelir. O zaman tayyare yok, trenle gelirler. Her seferinde Sirkeci’den yola çıkarlar ve bu vesileyle de arkadaş olurlar. Halil Ethem de Deissmann’a bulunan kitaplardan söz eder, bakmasını önerir. Tabii Deissmann bunu memnuniyetle kabul eder. Deissmann geldiği zaman önüne koydukları ilk kitap 13. yüzyılda yayımlanmış Homeros’ un “İlyada”‘sıdır. “Nereden buldunuz bunu?” diye sorar. Halil Ethem de “Bunlardan daha çok var” der. Sonrasında önüne Ptolemaios Atlası gelince, Deiss-mann işin ciddi olduğunu anlar. Kaynağı sorunca, Halil Ethem bunların Fatih’ in kütüphanesinin kalıntıları olduğunu söyler. Deissmann, Topkapı Sarayındaki koleksiyonda bulunan atlaslardan yola çıkarak Fatih’in coğrafyaya meraklı bir adam olduğunu düşünür. Sarayda daha çok harita olabileceğini söyler ve Halil Ethem’e sordurtur. Bir rulo harita getirilir ve masaya yayılır. Görürler ki kenardan Osmanlıca bir harita sarkıyordur. Halil Ethem alır, inceler ve üzerinde Amerika kıtası olduğunu görür. “Kolomb denen kâfirin yanında giden adamın üzerinde yakaladık Kemal Reis’le. Üstünden çıkan harita bunların haritasıdır.” yazmaktadır. Bu Piri Reis’ in meşhur 1513 tarihli haritasının bir parçasıdır. Fakat ilginç olan Kolomb, İspanya kral ve kraliçesine güvenmediği için Karayip bölgesini Toscanelli’nin haritasından kopyalamıştır. Bizim Piri Reis de bunu bilmediği için alıp aynısını kendi haritasına yerleştirmiştir. Bundan dolay Piri Reis’in 1513 yılında çizdiği haritadaki Karayipler’ le 1528 yılında çizdiği haritadaki Karayipler’ in hiçbir alakası yoktur. 1528 deki bugüne benzer. Onu yanıltan da elbette Kristof Kolomb’dur. Kristof Kolomb, krala ve kraliçeye hatalı olanı verme niyetindeymiş. Bizimkiler de hatalı haritayı zorla almışlar.

Fetih sonrasında Bizans’tan kalan bir kütüphanenin Osmanlı’ya geçtiğini iddia edenler de vardır ama böyle bir şey yoktur. Topkapi Sarayinda Fatihe ait olan kütüphanedeki kitapların tamamını kendisi toplamıştır. Fatih sadece kitap toplamakla kalmamış; ayni zamanda elde edemediği çoğu kitabi kendisine ait bir Yunanca scriptoriumda, pek çok Arapça kitabı da İslami scriptoriumda kopyalatmıştır. Bu da hummalı bir kitap toplama faaliyeti olduğunu ve Fatih’in bir imparatorluk kütüphanesinin hazırına konmadığını gösterir. Fatih’in kütüphanesinde kaç kitap olduğu bilinmiyor. Kütüphanesindeki kitaplar arasında Öklid’in geometrisi, İskenderiyeli Heron, Homeros, İncil Lügati, Ezop Masalları, Hz. Süleyman’ın sihir kitabi gibi kitaplar mevcuttur. Bayezid zamanında listesi çıkarılmış yedi bin kitaptan söz edilir ancak daha sonraki sultanlar bu kitaplarla ilgilenmediği için bugüne ancak üç beş tanesi kalabil- mistir. Saray çalışanlarının alıp okuyacak halleri yok tabii. Saray kütüphanesindeki değerli kitaplar hediye etme alışkanlığı var. Diplomatik bir silah olarak Osmanlı sultanları tarafından sık sık bu yöntem kullanılmıştır. Bir de İstanbul’daki yabancı misyoner ve elçiliklere sarayda çalışanlar tarafından çalınarak satılır, alıcılar da ülkeyi terk ettiğinden böylece o şahane koleksiyon dağılır. Muhtemelen Ptolemaios Atlaslar’ının ne olduğunu anlayamadıkları için onu kimse almamış. Suyun içinde kalmış ve perişan olmuş. Sayfaların kenarları çürümüş, çoğunun yarısından fazlası gitmiş; bu korkunç bir şeydir. Deissmann, Halil Ethem’e atlasın acilen restore edilmesi gerektiğini söyler. Halil Ethem de “Paşa’ya sormamız lazım,” diyerek Ankara’ya, Atatürk’e telefon eder. “Paşam böyle bir şey var çok harap vaziyette, bunun tamir edilmesi gerek. Biz zatıalinize bunu göstermek için getirmek istiyoruz, der. Fakat Atatürk, “Sakin getirmeyin, yerinden kaldırmayın, ben geliyorum!” diyerek kendisi gelir. Deissmann, Atatürk’e atlasın önemini anlatır. Atatürk de “Profesör, ne yapılması lazım?” diye sorar. Deissmann, “Bunun restore edilmesi lazım, bunu da dünyada tek kişi yapabilir; Hugo Ibscher. O da tesadüf bizim üniversitede, Berlin’de, diye karşılık verir. Ibscher o sırada Vatikan’da bizdeki Ptolemaios Atlasının kardeşi olan bir başka atlas üzerinde çalışıyordur. Fakat Vatikan’daki atlas, Topkapı’da bulunan kadar kıymetli değildir. Çünkü o konik projeksiyona göre çizilmiştir. Atatürk, “Profesör, Ibscher gelir mi?” diye sorar. Deissmann, “Siz çağırırsanız gelir, diye yanıtlar. Atatürk’ün emri üzerine Ibscher gelir ve atlası inceler. Yetersiz teknoloji yüzünden metin sayfalarını restore edemeyeceğini ama haritaları restore edeceğini söyler. Edebildiği kadarını restore eder. Atlasın da çok iyi muhafaza edilmesi gerektiğini belirtir. Çünkü gelecekteki teknolojiyle beraber sayfaların okunabileceğini öngörür. Atatürk de atlasın korunaklı bir şekilde saklanmasını emreder. Hatta Ibscher’ in, Vatikan’daki yakın dostu İtalyan kardinal bir âlime yazdığı mektuplar vardır. Mektuplarda İstanbul’daki şartlardan yakınır. Malzeme yok, isi bilen adam yok, gelenek yok vesaire diye yazar. Tabii Mustafa Kemal Paşa’nın ricası üzerine elinden geleni yaptığını da ekler.

Bundan yıllar sonra İsviçre’de bir araştırma merkezi kurulur. Ptolemaios un son genel edisyonu 1855’te yapılmıştır. İsviçre’deki araştırma merkezi yeni bir edisyona ihtiyaç duyar. Daha önce kimse bilmediği için Topkapı Sarayındaki nüsha kullanılmamıştır. Dönemin Topkapı Sarayı müdiresi rahmetli Filiz Cağman’dan bizdekini kullanmak için izin almışlar. Restoratörler getirirler; özel ekipmanlar, karbonize olmuş simsiyah kâğıtları okunur kılan ultraviole ışıklar…

Filiz Hanim beni çağırdı, “Celâl sen meraklısın, gel bak,” dedi. Tabii Ptolemaios açılıyor, gitmez miyim? Hemen Topkapı Sarayına gittim. Konuştuk adamlarla, tanıştık, sohbet ettik. Köln’deki meslek yüksekokulundan dünyanın en meşhur restoratörlerinden Robert Fuchs gelmişti. Filiz Hanım’la konuşmuşlar, Fuchs kitabin restore edilebileceğini söylemiş. Filiz Hanim beni bir köseye ekti, “Celal, bunun restore edilmesi lazım,” dedi. “Edin” dedim. “Devlet para vermiyor, sen verir misin?” diye sordu. Robert Fuchs’a ne kadar tutacağını sordum. “En fazla 30.000 avro,, dedi. Ben hemen kabul ettim. Esim Oya da parayı vermeyi memnuniyetle kabul etti. Restoratör belli, uzmanlar belli ama Kültür Bakanlığından izin almak gerekiyordu. Filiz Hanim izni talep etti ama yedi sene o izin gelmedi. Sonradan Filiz Hanim emekliliğe ayrılınca ve İlber Ortaylı başkan oldu. Ben İlber’e durumu izah edip sürecin hızlanması gerektiğini söyledim. İlber inanamadı. Hemen dönemin Kültür Bakan Atilla Koç’u aradı. Atilla Bey, aynı zamanda İlber’in mektep arkadaşıdır. Ertesi gün izin geldi. Ondan sonra Fuchs çalışmalara başlayabildi ve kitap restore edildi, çok da güzel oldu. Fuchs’un takım iyi is çıkardı. Ben çok memnun oldum. Bana tam takım fotoğraflarını ve filmlerini hediye ettiler. Bunlar pek çok yayınımda da kullandım. Benim de Fatih Sultan Mehmed’le yolum bu vesileyle kesişmiş oldu.

Restore edilmiş olan atlasın yüksek kalite bir faksimile yani tıpkıbasımı ve araştırma raporları, Boyut Yayanları tarafından yayımlanmıştır. Ülkemiz ve dünya entelektüelleri, Boyut Yayınları sahibi muhterem Bülent Ozükan’a bu külfetli ve riskli işi üstlendiği için şükran borçludurlar.

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1650-1718

Coronelli was a Francisan friar who spent most of his life in Venice, where he was appointed Father General of the Franciscan order in 1699.

Vincenzo Maria Coronelli was an Italian Franciscan friar, cartographer, and globe-maker, renowned for his detailed maps and globes, which were highly regarded in Europe during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Born in Venice, Coronelli became famous for his exceptional craftsmanship in creating large, elaborately decorated globes for prominent patrons, including Louis XIV of France.

He was awarded a doctorate in theology at the Collegium Santo Bonaventura in Rome in 1673. He became a famous mathematician, cosmographer, cartographer and globe maker. In 1678 he made two globes with a diameter of 175 cm for the Duke of Parma, and this brought him to the attention of the French ambassador. In 1681 he moved to Paris and served as Geographer Royal to King Louis XIV.

As his fame spread he worked in several European countries over the following years, continuing to make globes and writing books on geography and cartography. In 1705 he returned to Venice, where he founded the first geographical society, the Academia Cosmografica degli Argonauti, and held the position of ‘Cosmographer of the Republic of Venice’.

He also published the first six volumes of the first encyclopedia to be ordered alphabetically, but this was never completed.

KEY CONTRIBUTIONS AND ACHIEVEMENTS:

1. GLOBES: Coronelli is perhaps best known for the creation of two monumental globes for Louis XIV in 1683. These globes, each over 3 meters in diameter, were among the largest ever made and are masterpieces of both cartography and artistic design.

2. ATLASES AND MAPS: He produced a vast number of maps and atlases, including the “Atlante Veneto”, a comprehensive geographical work that was a major reference in its time.

3. ACADEMIA DEGLI ARGONAUTI: In 1680, Coronelli founded the world’s first geographical society, the Academia degli Argonauti, in Venice. This society brought together scholars interested in geography and cartography.

4. CULTURAL INFLUENCE: His work was influential in the development of European cartography, and his maps were used for both practical navigation and as symbols of wealth and knowledge.

Coronelli’s work is characterized by its accuracy, attention to detail, and artistic elegance, making him one of the most important figures in the history of cartography

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• Our books will in all likelihood outlast us, so it’s many collectors’ philosophy that they are paying not for the book itself, but the privilege of preserving it for the next generation.

• Condition is one of the most important considerations in book collecting, so buy at the best condition possible within your budget. It’s generally better to have a small collection of superior quality books than a large collection of lower quality. Also make sure that you have a safe place to store your books – they should be kept out of direct sunlight, away from radiators and moisture, and not exposed to swings in temperature.

• Pick a specific collecting area. Starting with something as general as “photography books” can be overwhelming. Instead, narrow it down to “photographs of the American West” or “late 20th-century fashion photography”. You can always expand from this as you develop your collection, or stop and start over with an entirely different topic.

• 

  Don’t be afraid to be original. It’s exciting to collect in a niche subject area, and you’ll have less competition for material. It can also make your collection more appealing when the time comes to sell or donate.

• Look at books. The internet has made it easy to collect from home, but you should still spend as much time as possible viewing books in person. Become a regular at local rare book shops, which can be discovered via the Antiquarian Bookseller’s Association (Britain), the Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America, and the International League of Antiquarian Booksellers. These organisations also maintain lists of upcoming bookfairs, which are a wonderful way to see books and to make connections with dealers from around the world.

• Be extremely cautious about purchasing books from online auction sites, as it can be difficult to return them if there is a mistake in the description. Dealers who are members of the organisations listed above abide by strict professional standards regarding descriptions and return policies.

• Read about books. You can start with general volumes on book collecting and book history: John Carter’s ABC for Book Collectors is one of the best guides (a free .pdf is also available via ILAB), and Nicholas Basbane’s A Gentle Madness is a humorous, in-depth look at the hobby. For an academic approach to the history of printed books the best starting point is The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing, 1450-1800 by Lucien Febvre and Jean Henri Martin. Additionally, our website features a glossary of rare book terminology as well as original biographies of some of our most popular authors.

• Familiarise yourself with the reference material in your subject area, particularly the bibliographies, which describe important editions of books and often provide information on their publishing history, scarcity, and historical or literary importance. The Oak Knoll shop in Delaware is a particularly good source for books about books.

• Sign up for dealer newsletters, online catalogues, and updates for books matching your interests (click here to sign up for our catalogues). Most of the large auction houses also provide these types of services. Reading catalogues, even if you’re not planning on buying from them, is a great way to educate yourself about the market.

• If you’ve been collecting for a little while and find that you really enjoy the hobby, consider taking a course at one of the rare books schools located in Virginia, California and London.

Article by Peter Harrington.

The post Book Collecting, Tips for Beginners appeared first on Emre Gurcay Collection.

PS: Personal note from EG. “Thanks to my dear friend Michael Jennings for sharing this article.”

People are always surprised when I tell them their map is a fake.  “But it’s in a really old frame and it looks really old,” they say.  “How can you tell?” they ask.  There are clues, and they are relatively easy to spot if you know what to look for on a map.  I always explain to them the clues, because my goal is to prevent reproductions from being offered on the market as originals.  It’s not good for the map market.

In my line of work, it is very common to come across fake maps (also known as “reproductions”), as I am constantly receiving email inquiries from people who want to consign material with us. More often than not they simply found the map at a yard sale or inherited it, they don’t have any experience dealing with antique maps, and they are looking for my expertise.  However it is not very common for me to discover reproductions being passed off as originals by reputed auctioneers.  But it does happen, and here is one story.

I sat at my desk scrolling through dozens of maps in another auctioneer’s sale, when I came across one that caught my eye.  A beautiful colored example of Hondius’ double-hemisphere world map, Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica ac Hydrographica Tabula.  The first thing that jumped out at me was the auction estimate, which was a third of what this map usually sells for at auction.  I looked closely at the photos to see if there were any condition defects that would warrant such a low value, and it quickly became obvious. There wasn’t anything wrong with the condition of the map, except that it was a reproduction, not an original copperplate engraving.  Yet the map was described as being from 1630, and even though the auction estimate was low, it was thousands of dollars more than one would pay for a reproduction.  Clearly whoever had catalogued this map hadn’t realized it wasn’t authentic.

Here are the clues that helped me determine the map was a reproduction:

CLUE 1. Absence of a plate mark. This is one of the first things I look for with copperplate maps, as most will show signs of a plate mark somewhere outside the engraving.  With 16th-17th century maps, the plate mark is usually very close to the outer neatline, as copper was an expensive material and therefore the plates were made as small as possible.  Checking for a plate mark isn’t a foolproof method, as sometimes the sheet has been trimmed and the plate mark has been cut off, or the plate mark is very faint and indiscernible, or it can be concealed by matting within a frame.  On some counterfeit maps (those intended to deceive), the plate mark has been added by pressing a lightly-inked straight edge into the paper around the map.  The best way to identify whether a visible plate mark is authentic is to compare it with the plate mark of a known authentic example.  With few exceptions, a plate mark will maintain its shape and distance from the neatline on all examples printed from that plate.  You can find high resolution digital images of thousands of maps online to use as comparisons, including nearly 90,000 digital images in the archive on Old World Auctions.

What is a Plate Mark? The plate mark is the impression that the engraved plate made when pressed onto paper to print the map. The plate mark can usually be felt by touch as an indentation in the paper, and there is also often some grayish ink residue along the edge of the plate mark that shows the physical size and shape of the plate.

CLUE 2. Quality of the engraved lines.  Copperplate maps are engraved using the intaglio method, which produces lines that are crisp, distinct and continuous.  Most modern printing techniques cannot replicate this aspect of an original engraving, resulting in lines that are slightly blurry, with closely engraved fine lines simply merging together.  This was particularly noticeable in the Hondius world map in question.  One caveat to this is that sometimes you will come across original engraved maps with poor impressions — either the plate wasn’t properly inked before being pressed onto the paper or the plate became worn down over time, causing the engraved lines to be less distinct.  Often these examples will still have some areas of the map that exhibit the crisp, continuous lines you should expect.  However if the entire impression is poor, other clues will have to guide your judgment on the authenticity of the map.

CLUE 3. Paper quality. The quality and type of paper on which the map is printed is an important factor in confirming authenticity, but this is one of the clues that takes the most time and experience to master.  Until the late 18th century, the vast majority of maps were printed on handmade laid paper, which was made from linen and cotton rags.  The paper was made on a wire screen mold that created chain lines both horizontally and vertically on the paper, which can be seen if you hold a sheet of laid paper up to light.  Often shapes and names were added to the wire molds to create watermarks that identified the paper mill.  Specific watermarks are attributable to certain cartographers or publishers and can help date a piece of paper and identify its source.  People who handle lots of maps will come to know the attributes (such as thickness, color, and watermarks) of the paper commonly used by specific mapmakers.  Knowing these specifics helps experts ascertain whether the paper looks and “feels” right for a given map.  Of course this is one of the more difficult aspects to identify based on a photograph, so in-person inspection is typically necessary.

Laid paper is also characterized by a textured and uneven surface caused by irregularities in the linen/cotton and the hand-made process.  This factor can be more easily seen in a photo, and was the reason that I determined that the paper on the Hondius world map was not right for the 17th century.

CLUE 4. Absence of a centerfold.  Most folio-sized maps from the 16th-18th centuries will have a centerfold, which is due to the maps being folded in half vertically in order to fit into an atlas.  The centerfold is still visible even if a map has been removed from an atlas and pressed flat, and sometimes it is more visible on the back of the sheet than on the front.  It is also more common for there to be defects along the centerfold, such as separations, tears, creasing or toning.  However, not all maps were published in atlases, so knowing how a map was typically issued is essential.  Some maps were issued both in atlases and as separate sheets, and smaller maps may have been bound into a book or atlas along one side rather than the center of the map, so the absence of a centerfold may not always identify a reproduction.

After noticing all four clues, I decided to contact the auctioneer to let them know that the map was a reproduction.  As I stated before, it is important to us at Old World Auctions that we help prevent fake maps from circulating the market as authentic originals.  Everyone makes mistakes, and we would want to know if we had made a mistake so that we could rectify the situation.  The auctioneer was very receptive to the information I provided and indicated that they would look into the situation further.  The auctioneer was not trying to deceive its customers — it was simply an oversight.  (Please note that we are purposely keeping the auctioneer’s identity private.)

There are a few key takeaways that I would like to share.  First of all, confirming authenticity and identifying reproductions takes effort.  Understanding what was common for a particular mapmaker or time period is critical.  This comes with experience, however in the absence of experience doing research will help.  There are reference materials that outline how specific maps were issued, common watermarks for certain mapmakers and time periods, and whether known forgeries exist and what signs to look for.  And comparing a suspicious map with a known original is always useful.

Second, the four clues listed above should not be considered in isolation.  Sometimes one clue is enough to identify a map as a reproduction, but one clue alone is not enough to confirm authenticity with certainty.  One must consider all of these factors together.

Third, this guideline is primarily intended for copper and steel plate engravings.  For other types of printed maps, such as woodblock, woodcut, or lithographs, the clues must be slightly modified.  And sometimes, comparing the map in question with an original is the only way to verify authenticity.  In these cases, you will need to compare the size of the image, printing style, paper quality, absence or appearance of folds, and if printed in color, the colors used and saturation of color.  Again, experience helps, so the more maps you encounter, the better your eyes will be at spotting inconsistencies.

And finally, buyer beware!  If you are not buying maps from a business that specializes in maps, you will have to put in extra time and effort to do your homework.  Make sure you inspect the map in person, or at least request photos of both the front and back of the map.  Be especially cautious of maps in frames, as frames are notorious for hiding key tell-tale signs that a map is not an original.  And if you encounter an auctioneer that states that all items are sold “as is” and that no guarantees are made regarding the accuracy of their statements or the authenticity of their offerings, that should be a red flag.

In our experience, it is much more common to encounter reproductions that are relatively easy to identify, rather than counterfeit maps that were created with the intent to deceive.  The fact that any of them exist requires everyone to remain vigilant in closely inspecting each map, and checking for the four clues above is a good guideline.  At Old World Auctions we take authenticity very seriously, and we hope that by sharing our expertise, you too can help us in our quest to keep fake maps out of the marketplace.

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